Brief Overview of the History of Epirus

[akritas]

NAME - LOCATION - GEOGRAPHICAL DATA

Epirus forms a singular geographical compartment on the northwestern side of the Greek Peninsula. It has born the same name continuously, ever since mythical times, and it has always formed a coherent, uniform and indivisible geographic, economic and cultural unit. Its natural boundaries extend from the Ambracian gulf in the south, to the river Genusus (mod. Shkumbi) in the north, and from the Ionian Sea in the west to the mountain range of Pindus in the east.

According Brittanika is a

coastal region of northwestern Greece and southern Albania. It extends from Valona Bay (Gji i Vlorës) in Albania (northwest) to the Gulf of Arta (southeast); its hinterland extends eastward to the watershed of the Pindus Mountains.

The nomoi (departments) of Ã�rta, Ioánnina, Préveza (qq.v.), and ThesprotÃ*a make up the Greek part of Epirus.

The Pindus Mountains separate Epirus from the Greek regions of Macedonia and Thessaly to the east. The principal town in Greek Epirus is Ioánnina, and the largest settlement in Albanian Epirus is Gjirokastër.

In a broader view, Epirus. together with Albania, lie in the western territorial compartment of the Balkans, which is separated from the rest of the peninsula by the great mountain massif that is the extension of the Southern Alps. This is formed by a chain of mountain ranges bearing several names, the Julian, the Deinaric, and the Greek Alps (the Pindus), that begins in Friuli (Italy) and terminates with the Taygetus mountain in the southern tip of the Peloponnese.

The basin of the great lakes, the twin Prespa lakes and lake Ohrid (ancient Lychnitis), and the valley of the Genusus river separate the northern section of this major territorial compartment -which was once known as Illyria, and is known today in parts as Albania. Dalmatia, etc.- from the southern section, which has always kept the name Epirus.

Specifically to the north, the boundary line follows the Genusus river from its estuary on the Adriatic coast up to its sources near Ohrid lake. To the south. the boundaries coincide with the Greek-Albanian border, which commence fiom the Stylos promontory on the Ionian Sea and passing through the mountains of Tsamantas, Makrykampos and Gramnlos ends by the Great Prespa lake.

The Ionian and Adriatic Seas form the western boundaries of the region, while lake Ohrid, Galichitsa mountain (dubbed "the Balkan Pyrennees"). and the Great Prespa lake, form the eastern boundaries. Northern Epirus constitutes the greater part of Epirus. Its area totals approximately 16,000 square kilometers, out of'a total of 23,000 square kilometers that comprise the whole of Epirus. The climate is temperate on the coast and harsher towards the interior. The greater part of Epirus is devoid of forests. Large and abrupt mountain ranges break off from the mountain mass of Pindus in a northwesterly direction. Rivers flow amongst these ranges. and take the same direction, forming the valleys that make up the main communication routes. The most important mountain ranges, from east to west are:

• the Grammos, Ostrovitsa, Tomori chain
• the Kamenik, Radomit, Mali, Tsarishte. Reheshine, Glave, Malakastra chain.
• the Tymphe. Merope (Nemertska), Aerope (Dhembelit), Lundzherishe, Trebeshine chain
• the Merope, Makrykampos, Tsamantas. Gjer, Frasheri, Kurvelesh. Griha chain
• the Kurvelesh. Mali Kallarat, Lungara chain
• and further west. the Ceraunian and Acroceraunian mountains.

The valley of Muzakia, in the northwestern part of northern Epirus, is the only extended plain of'the whole of Epirus. It is crossed by many rivers and it is fertile.

The region's major rivers are the Aoiis (Voyusa), the Apsus or Semeni (Devol), and the Genusus (Shkumhi). Except for the last. which follows an east to west direction, the rest follow a southeast to northwest direction.

Their narrow valleys offer routes of communication among the various regions of northern Epirus and connect the ports of the Adriatic to the interior of the Greek peninsula. Various invaders from the West have followed these valleys upstream in almost all their raids on the Greek peninsula.

The great Roman "Egnatian Way" also followed the valley of the (Genusus river. It started from the ancient city of Epidamnus, today's Durazzo (ancient Dyrrachium). joined mid-way with an alternative route that came up from the south, from the city of Apollonia, near the gulf of Valona, then went through the ancient city of Lychnidus (mod. Ohrid), traversed Macedonia, and via Thessalonica reached Constantinople.

The Mediterranean cuts deeply between the Balkan and the Italian peninsulas, to form the Ionian and the Adriatic seas. The two peninsulas approach each other at the height of the Acroceraunian promontory on the east side, and the Apulian peninsula on the west side, which form the straits of Otranto (ancient Hydrous). The straits, forty-two nautical miles wide, are the only entrance to the Adriatic and the shortest sea route between the Italian and Greek peninsulas. The coastline of northern Epirus forms the harbors of Agioi Saranta and Valona.

Mountains break the region of Epirus into several departments. Its prominent mountain relief, the direction of its mountain ranges and its narrow valleys, the small width of the coastal plain, and the limited transportation network seriously impede the conduct of military operations in the region. Military forces are compelled to follow the direction of the valleys and the mountain ranges from the northwest to the southeast and vice versa. Lateral routes are very few and of poor quality so that troop movement from the east to the west and vice versa is extremely difficult.

The narrow width of the Otranto straits, as well as the existing natural bays and landing beaches, offer an invader from the west easy access to form beachheads on the territorial compartment of northern Epirus, while the direction of the valleys lead the invader, successively, towards the Thermaic gulf and Central Greece. Therefore, these geographic traits defined the fate of Epirus through the centuries, and had a decisive impact on its fates. This,
combined with the dynamism of its inhabitants, transformed the region into an important bastion of Hellenism.

.......to be continued

sources
1-Brittanika, Epirus
2-Konstantinos Vakalopoulos, Epiros
3-The Struggle Of North Epirus, Greek DIS
4-Wikipedia, Via Egnatia

[Truth Bearer]

Great research there Akritas well done mate

[akritas]

ANCIENT AND ROMAN TIMES

From ancient times, Epirus, together with Macedonia, formed northern Greece, of which the northwestern corner reached the Acroceraunian mountains and the Genusus river.

Hecataeus of Miletus (545-475 BC), the greatest historian and geographer before Herodotus, identifies Oricuml as a port of Epirus. Many years later, Strabo (67 BC-AD 23), who crossed the valley of the Genusus in his travels, confirms in a way that leaves no doubt that the Epirots lived to the right (south) of the Egnatian Way, while the Illyrians lived to the left (north) of it. Many other historians and geographers of antiquity also repeat the same information, in greater or lesser detail.

Thucydides, Seulx, Plybius the traveler Pausanias, the geographer and astronomer Claudius Ptolemy," the Romans Pliny and Pomponius, the Byzantine Procopius and others.

Procopius (6th c. A.D.), the most renowned historian of the Byzantine era notes:

The first inhabitants are Greeks, those that are called Epirots. [They dwell] as far as the city of Epidamnus. which is situated on the sea.
[History of the Wars, 5.15.24]

Below is a map from Margalit Finkelberg that show the Greek dialects in 1.000 to 2.000 BC

Most of those mentioned also refer to the Epirotic tribes, which inhabited the region. According to their testimony, there were fourteen such tribes. There were, however, also subdivisions within those tribes, which the authors further mention (subdivisions within a tribe were common to all ancient peoples and not only to the Greeks). In contrast, however, to their neighboring tribes -the Illyrians, for example- the Epirots were conscious of their tribal descent. They took part in the Hellenic overseas campaigns, such as that against Troy, as they also took part in the panhellenic festivals and athletic games which were held at regular intervals at Isthmus, Nemea, Delphi and the most famous of all at Olympia.

Aristotle states that Epirus, the district around Dodona, was the first region to be called Hellas and its inhabitants Hellenes, adding, in fact, that this was where the Greeks were first called Graikoi, a name that the Romans would later spread through Western Europe.

The oracle at Dodona was the most ancient and revered holy site for the pre-Homeric Greeks. According to the ancient historians, and what is accepted by many modern historians, the last great southward movement of the Hellenic tribes began from Epirus, "sixty years after the Trojan events," according to Thucydides."

Greek mythology provides significant witness to the origin of the ancient Greeks, and the Hellenicity of Epirus. According to Greek mythology, Zeus lived in Dodona (on mount Tomaros). The Acherousian lake, the gates to Hades and to the abodes of Pluto, the Acheron and Cocytus rivers were situated in Thesprotia.

Even after the Dorians migrated and established themselves in Southern Greece (the last Hellenic tribe to do so), the Greeks continued to remember their original homeland, their religion, and their places of worship. For centuries after their migration to Boeotia, the Thebans continued to send representatives (theoroi) to Dodona, where the traditional rites and sacrifices to Zeus did not commence until after their arrival.

It must be noted that the names Epeiros and Apeiros (meaning "infinite") are extremely ancient and Greek in origin."Its inhabitants, the Epirots (or Apeirotes, according to the local Doric dialect) were related, as was only natural, through intermarriage to their neighboring Illyrians and maintained close ties to them, as they were both descended from parallel branches of the Indo-European speaking peoples. However, as it is shown above, the Epirots were Greeks, while the Illyrians were not."

Best known amongst the various Epirotic tribes were the Chaonians, the Thesprotians and the Molossians, who, together with the Atintanes and some others, are mentioned as allies of the Lacedaemonians during the Peloponnesian War."Around 329 BC, the Molossians prevailed in Epirus and during the reign of King Alcetas, they took part in the Second Athenian League.] The Molossian kings according to the myths were descendants of Homeric Achilles And went on to ally themselves to Philip of Macedon. It is well known that Olympias, the sister of the king of Epirus, was the mother of Alexander the Great. Two other rulers who brought glory to ancient Epirus, also came from the same dynasty. Of these, Alexander I campaigned in Italy. supporting the Greek cities of Magna Graecia in their wars against the Italian peoples (338-330 BC)' Pyrrhus (319 or 318-272 BC), the most glorious king of Epirus, would later repeat his efforts.

Pyrrhus was considered by ancient historians to be the greatest general in Greece and in the entire ancient world after Alexander the Great." Alexander neutralized the Persian threat from the East and carried Greek civilization to Asia. Pyrrhus attempted to repeat this feat in the West, in his famous wars with the Romans and the Carthaginians (306-272 BC). His campaign was considered "Panhellenic," and the course of history would be different if Pyrrhus' political ability had equaled his tactical talents." After his defeat in Italy he became involved in the Greek civil wars, and was killed in Argos in 272 HC. Almost fifty years of internal conflict racked Epirus after Pyrrhus' death. Considering the monarchy to be the source of the trouble, the Epirots abolished the institution, and created the Epirotan Confederation, with Phoenice as its capital.

Later, the Epirots were almost the only Greeks to support the Macedonians
in their wars against the Roman invaders. Following the battle of Pydna (167 BC), where the Greek forces were defeated, the Epirots experienced the Romans' severity and vengeful fury. Seventy cities were destroyed and 150,000 inhabitants were sold into slavery. The wars of the Epirots against the enemies of Hellenism, in Italy as well as in Greece, generated a panhellenic response, and Polybius the historian wrote in their praise:

"It is the Epirots' ancestral custom to fight and put themselves in danger for their friends, and die for their country."

In spite of the terrible destruction, Epirus remained Greek, and this is documented in two incontrovertible sources. First, when Nicopolis was founded in 31 BC by Octavian Augustus, near the site of modern Preveza, the first inhabitants were Epirots, forcibly transported from the surrounding towns and villages of Epirus.l Second, in the time of the Roman emperor Diocletian (AD 284-305), Epirus was divided into two administrative regions:

"Old Epirus" (Epirus Vetus), with Nicopolis as capital, which encompassed the region from the Ambracian gulf to the river Genusus, and "New Epirus", (Epirus Nova), the Illyric regions north of the river, and with Epidamnus as its administrative center. The name of this second district proves that Epirus not only retained its Greek identity and memory of its former glory in Roman times, but it had expanded its cultural influence much further north into the region of the Illyrians. This is also attested from archaeological excavations north of the river Genusus, which brought to light ruins of Greek buildings, as well as coins bearing Greek inscription.

.......to be continued

sources
1-Brittanika, Epirus
2-Konstantinos Vakalopoulos, Epiros
3-The Struggle Of North Epirus, Greek DIS
4-Margalit Finkelberg, Greeks and Pre-Greeks

================================================== ================================================== ==============

@ Truth Bearer
thanks

[Orphic_Hymn]

Frontinus, Stratagems, Book II, V. On ambushes

Stratagems, Book II, V. 10


Alexander Epirotes adversus Illyrios collocata in insidiis manu quosdam ex suis habitu Illyriorum instruxit et iussit vastare suam [id est Epiroticam] regionem. quod cum Illyrii viderent fieri, ipsi passim praedari coeperunt eo securius, quod praecedentes veluti pro exploratoribus habebant: a quibus ex industria in loca iniqua deducti caesi fugatique sunt.

Translation:

Alexander, the Epirote, when waging war against the Illyrians, first placed a force in ambush, and then dressed up some of his own men in Illyrian garb, ordering them to lay waste his own, that is to say, Epirote territory. When the Illyrians saw that this was being done, they themselves began to pillage right and left — the more confidently since they thought that those who led the way were scouts. But when they had been designedly brought by the latter into a disadvantageous position, they were routed and killed.

Stratagems, Book II, V. 19


Harrybas, rex Molossorum, bello petitus a Bardyli Illyrio, maiorem
aliquanto exercitum habente, amolitus imbelles suorum in vicinam regionem
Aetoliae famam sparsit, tamquam urbes ac res suas Aetolis concederet:
ipse cum his, qui arma ferre poterant, insidias in montibus et locis confragosis distribuit. Illyrii timentes, ne quae Molossorum erant ab Aetolis occuparentur, velut ad praedam festinantes neglectis ordinibus accelerare coeperunt: quos dissipatos, nihil tale exspectantes, Harrybas ex insidiis tudit fugavitque.


Translation

When Harrybas, king of the Molossians, was attacked in war by Bardylis, the Illyrian, who commanded a considerably larger army, he dispatched the non-combatant portion of his subjects to the neighbouring district of Aetolia, and spread the report that he was yielding up his towns and possessions to the Aetolians. He himself, with those who could bear arms, placed ambuscades here and there on the mountains and in other inaccessible places. The Illyrians, fearful lest the possessions of the Molossians should be seized by the Aetolians, began to race along in disorder, in their eagerness for plunder. As soon as they became scattered, Harrybas, emerging from his concealment and taking them unawares, routed them and put them to flight

Pausanias, Description of Greece Book 1 Attica

1,11,7

Ῥωμαίοις δὲ οὐδένα Πύρρου πρότερον πολεμήσαντα ἴσμεν Ἕλληνα. Διομήδει μὲν γὰρ καὶ Ἀργείων τοῖς σὺν αὐτῷ οὐδεμίαν ἔτι γενέσθαι πρὸς Αἰνείαν λέγεται μάχην· Ἀθηναίοις δὲ ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἐλπίσασι καὶ Ἰταλίαν πᾶσαν καταστρέψασθαι τὸ ἐν Συρακούσαις πταῖσμα ἐμποδὼν ἐγένετο μὴ καὶ Ῥωμαίων λαβεῖν πεῖραν· Ἀλέξανδρος δὲ ὁ Νεοπτολέμου, γένους τε ὢν Πύρρῳ τοῦ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἡλικίᾳ πρεσβύτερος, ἀποθανὼν ἐν Λευκανοῖς ἔφθη πρὶν ἐς χεῖρας ἐλθεῖν Ῥωμαίοις.


Translation

Pyrrhus was the first Greek we know of to wage war against the Romans. For no further battle, it is said, took place between Aeneas and Diomedes with his Argives. One of the many ambitions of the Athenians was to reduce all Italy, but the disaster at Syracuse prevented their trying conclusions with the Romans. Alexander, son of Neoptolemus, of the same family as Pyrrhus but older, died among the Leucani before he could meet the Romans in battle.

11.2.1

ταῦτα λεγόντων τῶν πρέσβεων μνήμη τὸν Πύρρον τῆς ἁλώσεως ἐσῆλθε τῆς Ἰλίου, καί οἱ κατὰ ταὐτὰ ἤλπιζε χωρήσειν πολεμοῦντι· στρατεύειν γὰρ ἐπὶ Τρώων ἀποίκους Ἀχιλλέως ὢν ἀπόγονος.


Translation

Pyrrhus remembered the capture of Troy, which he took to be an omen of his success in the war, as he was a descendant of Achilles making war upon a colony of Trojans.

Apollodoros Library

3.93.5
(on Callirrhoe and Alcmaeon's sons)

κατὰ πρόσταξιν Ἀχελῴου. πορευθέντες δὲ εἰς τὴν Ἤπειρον συναθροίζουσιν οἰκήτορας καὶ κτίζουσιν Ἀκαρνανίαν

Translation

according to the injunction of Achelous. Then they journeyed to Epirus, collected settlers, and founded Acarnania

Strabo Geography

Book 7.7.5

Μολοττούς, οἳ καὶ διὰ τὴν συγγένειαν τῶν βασιλέων ἐπὶ πλέον ηὐξήθησαν (τῶν γὰρ Αἰακιδῶν ἦσαν)

Translation:

the Molossi grew to still greater power, partly because of the kinship of their kings, who belonged to the family of the Aeacidae

Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities

20.10

Διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ὑπὸ Ῥωμαίων ἡττήθη
ὁ Πύρρος κατὰ κράτος· οὐ γὰρ στρατιά τις φαύλη καὶ
ἀνάσκητος ἦν αὐτῷ, ἀλλ' ἡ κρατίστη τῶν τότε οὐσῶν
ἐν Ἕλλησι καὶ πλείστους ἀγωνισαμένη πολέμους·

Translation

It was for this reason that Pyrrhus was defeated by the Romans also in a battle to the finish. For it was no mean or untrained army that he had, but the mightiest of those then in existence among the Greeks and one that had fought a great many wars

Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium

Book II, XI

Πυρρο επικαλεσαντο συμμαχιαν Ταραντίνοι, γενος μεν Αχχιλεως, Βασιλευοντα δε των Ηπειρων

Translation:

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who derived his origin from the family of Achilles



Book II, XIII

Κινεαν ειπειν πατριδα βασιλεων εωρακεναι τουτο δηλουντα ωσ οι της πολεωσ ενοικοι παντες τοιουτοι τυχαινουσιν οιος αυτος ο Πυρρος κατα την Ηπειρον και την Ελλαδα πασαν υπειληπται


Translation:

"Cineas replied, that "he had seen a country of kings, for that all there were such, as Pyrrhus alone was thought to be in Epirus and the rest of Greece."

[akritas]

THE BYZANTINE ERA

There is not much information available on Epirus in the early centuries of the Byzantine empire. The region was at a distance from the main axes of barbarian raids, as well as the battlefields where these were checked.

However, in brief references, the Byzantine chronographers reveal the fact that the Visigoths, led by Alaric, and the Ostrogoths, led by Theoderic, passed through Epirus on their way to Italy. During the same period (the fifth century)

Epirus was also wracked by great earthquakes and plagues. Gaiseric's Vandals completed these disasters by occupying Nicopolis and raiding the Epirotan coastline. Later (AD 551), the Goths led by Totila destroyed Dodona and most of the cities in Epirus.

During the 6th century various Slavic tribes began raids that lasted intermittently through the tenth century. According to the opinions of reliable historians, the Slavs were nomadic peoples, and, in time, were absorbed by the local population. As a result, scant evidence remains attesting to their passage, and this includes some place names in the mountain regions where they settled The Bulgarian raids had a greater impact on the region: circa AD 929 they completely leveled Nicopolis and other Epirotan cities. Nevertheless, the Byzantine emperor Basil "the Bulgar-slayer" finally rid Epirus and the rest of the Greek peninsula of the Bulgarian danger.

During all this period, despite the raids and destruction, Epirus didn't lose its Greek character. In the Synecdemus of Hierocles, an administrative gazetteer of the early Byzantine Empire, the "old Epirus is mentioned as the 12th province and the "new" as the 13th, with a total of 21 cities."

The testimony of Hierocles is confirmed by the historian Procopius, who further mentions which of the cities, that had been destroyed by the earthquakes and the barbarians, were rebuilt and fortified by Justinian."

Later, Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetus, who talked about the new administrative divisions of the state, the themata, repeats what Hierocles writes about the two provinces of Epirus. Οne can deduce from all the sources, that Epirus, both "old and "new," was a flourishing Greek region that included 21 cities.

Under the Comnenian dynasty, the threat from the west reappeared. The Normans of Southern Italy, led by the notorious Robert Guiscard, landed at Kanina (near Valona), and taking advantage of the internal Byzantine strife, as well as of the Seljuk raids in Asia Minor, attempted to conquer the Byzantine Empire. Thus began, in 1082, an epic struggle in northwestern Epirus, centered around Durazzo, which with many fluctuations lasted until AD 1107. Alexius Comnenus finally managed to turn back the Norman raids in Epirus. However, later on, during the Crusades, his heirs could not withstand the pressure of the Western world. In 1204 the western armies of the Fourth Crusade conquered Constantinople and plundered it. The Byzantine Empire fell apart.

As the two-headed Byzantine eagle fled, heavily injured, to Nicaea in Asia Minor, the Byzantine provinces in Europe, one after the other, fell into the hands of the violent Crusader knights, and were transformed into numerous Frankish petty states. Epirus, however, held on to its independence.

The renowned Despotate of Epirus, which was founded during that time, constitutes the best proof, not only of the Hellenicity of the region during that period, but also of the firm spirit of resistance of the Epirotan people to foreign invaders. Michael Comnenus Ducas (1204-1216), who founded the Despotate, succeeded in stabilizing his hold over the entire area of both provinces of Epirus. His brother, Theodore Comnenus Ducas, who succeeded him, extended the boundaries of the Despotate, liberating Thessaly and Macedonia, and reaching the river Hebrus. Indeed, it appeared that he would also liberate Constantinople. In 1230, however, in the battle of Klokotnitsa, near Adrianople, he was defeated and captured by the Bulgarians.

The heirs to the throne of the Despotate clashed with the Greek Empire of Nicaea, with the result that the recapture of Constantinople from the Franks was delayed. The Despotate also lost the prestige it had gained under its first two rulers. Epirus during that period, free from attacks by the Franks and the Slavs, flourished and enjoyed great prosperity, as is attested in the towns of Epirus by the many Byzantine buildings (churches, forts, aqueducts, bridges, etc.) dating from this time of hardship for Hellenism.

The Despotate of Epirus offered inestimable services to Hellenism in the dark period of the Frankish Occupation. As Paparregopoulos epigrammatically states "[Epirus] at that time, saved the Greek nation in Europe."

When Constantinople was retaken, Epirus was for a short period (ca. 1335) incorporated into the Byzantine Empire, which, however, never succeeded in recovering its previous glory. The Serbs formed a powerful state and began to push southward, reaching as far as the river Genusus and the gates of Thessalonica. In 1349 Stephen Dushan occupied all of western Greece, reaching as far as Acarnania, and proclaimed himself emperor of "the Serbs and the Romans." Many Albanians, who had helped him in his conquests, came from the areas north and settled in Epirus.

The situation following his demise was chaotic. Charles Thopia, an Albanian tribal chief, who in 1368 proclaimed himself "King of Albania," prevailed in the northern part of greater Epirus. The Serbs, who retained their hold on central Epirus, with Ioannina as its capital, ceded the territory to the Florentine Esau Buondelmonti (1385). The southern provinces of Epirus were under the control of various Albanian tribal chieftains.

By the end of this period there appeared in Europe for the first time a new wave of raiders from the East, the Ottoman Turks. On 9 October 1431, the Ottomans occupied Ioannina and within a few years they extended their dominion over all of Epirus.

sources
1-Brittanika, Epirus
2-Konstantinos Vakalopoulos, Epiros
3-The Struggle Of North Epirus, Greek DIS
4-Epirus:4000 years of Greek history and Civilization

[akritas]

THE TURKISH OCCUPATION (TOURKOKRATIA)


In order to secure their possession of Epirus, the Turks fought fiercely against the Venetians, who held certain forts on the western shore, and were constantly inciting the Epirots to revolt. These rebellions, aided by the Venetians and the Pope, extended as far as northern Albania. The famous George Castriota, better known under the name Skanderbeg (alternatively Skender Bey), operating out of Kroia, succeeded in checking the Ottoman thrust until the period of his death. Skanderbeg thus became the champion of the Balkan Christians against Turkish domination.

After the death of Skanderbeg, the Turks were able to extend their dominion over the entire region. In order to secure their hold they initiated certain fundamental measures that aimed to strip the Christians of all power, and to increase the Muslim population of the region. Christian toparchs (kephalades or sipahis) were forbidden from exercising any authority (raising taxes on behalf of the Turks, maintaining armed retainers, etc.) and privileges (administrative positions, estates to cultivate and others) were granted to those who turned Muslim. As a consequence of these measures, most of the 12000 sipahis (regular cavalry), who were usually large landholders, were islamized in order not to lose their fortunes. These new converts became the harshest persecutors and oppressors of their own people.

Islamization took on greater proportions in the province of "new" Epirus, modern Albania. In fact, the Albanians, lacking a developed ethnic identity until that time, would readily join foreign rulers and invaders. They took advantage of the new Ottoman policy to gain great estates, to the detriment of the Epirots, who remained faithful to their ancestral religion and their national tradition. Initially, the Ottoman yoke had not been particularly heavy. Besides levying taxes (a responsibility assigned to the local notables), the Turks were mainly interested in ensuring their absolute control of the region, and in the territories they conquered, they mostly left the Byzantine administrative system in place. There were, in fact, certain cities and mountain regions which had gained special privileges. Ioannina, for example, was exempt from the "devshirme" (the child tribute, or the seizure of children from the Christian subject peoples). In addition, Turks were forbidden to stay in the city, which was protected by the fortress. Cheimarra, as well as certain other mountainous regions, was also exempt from the head tax and the inhabitants had the right to bear arms.l Before long, conditions began to worsen. The islamization of the Albanians transformed the situation in Epirus and especially in its northern regions. The islamized Albanians, the so-called "Turk-Albanians," became terrible persecutors of the Christian Greeks. Many were forced to abandon their ancestral homes in the countryside, and to move in groups towards the southern areas of Epirus, and other regions of Greece, such as Attica, Boeotia, the Peloponnese, and the Aegean islands. Those who remained in the countryside began to withdraw from the valleys to the mountains and in many regions the phenomenon of "crypto-Christians" appeared.


Despite ongoing persecution, the Epirots continued to maintain their fervent commitment to their culture and their belief in their national regeneration. Rebellions and insurrections continued and, whenever Venice, the Habsburg Empire, or Russia were at war with the Ottoman Empire, the
Epirots were always ready to accept promises for support and to rebel. However, time and again they were abandoned and forced to pay the heavy price of the betrayal of their hopes for liberty. An almost unbelievable number of rebellions took place in Epirus during the wars between the Venetians-Austrians and the Ottoman Empire.


Among the more noteworthy revolts was that led in central Epirus by Dionysios 11, metropolitan bishop of Trikke (modern Trikala), called "Skylosophos." He arrived in Epirus in 1611, and incited the local peasants into a revolt. Having defeated certain Turkish provincial garrison troops in the countryside, as well as the inhabitants of certain islamized villages, he succeeded in reaching the Ioannina lake on the night of 10 to 11 September 1611, at the head of approximately one thousand, mostly unarmed, peasants, and to occupy the city. On the following day, the Turks, realizing the weakness of the rebel force and enlisting the sipahi cavalry, crushed the rebellion. Dionysius was captured and flayed a1ive.

The Treaty of Passarowitz (21 July 1718) marked the end of the wars between the Ottoman Empire and the Venetian Republic, that drained their strength and ushered in a period of decline for both. Austria and later Russia continued the struggle against the Turks. The collaboration between the Venetians and the Epirot armatoles ceased, and a long and unusual reign of peace followed in the region. In any case, the resulting conditions in Epirus did not permit the continuation of rebellious movements. The Turks increasingly used the Turk-Albanians to suppress outbreaks of rebellions, not only by the Greeks, but by the other Christian peoples of the Balkans. Thus, the unruly Turk-Albanians evolved into the scourge of all Balkan nations, including the Turks themselves.

The Epirots' possessions, life, and honor at this time, fell into the hands of armed Turk-Albanian gangs. They were punished even in cases of outbreaks of rebellion in other Balkan areas in which they had taken no part. Under the pretext of disarming the Christians or punishing them for secretly financing insurrections, even in remote areas of the Balkans, such as Romania or the Peloponnese, the Turk-Albanians plundered cities and villages of Epirus. The Epirots also felt the vengeful lust of the Turk-Albanians for defeats or losses the latter had suffered at the hands of Christian armies in various wars. They also paid for victories of the rejoicing Albanians against the "infidel." Thus when a new rebellion took place in the Peloponnese in 1769-1770 (the so-called Orlov Revolt), the Turk-Albanians destroyed Moschopolis. Vithkuqi, Nikolitsa, Emporia (Mborje), Linotopi and other cities and towns of Epirus.

The destruction the Turk-Albanians wrought during this period finally forced the Ottoman authorities to intervene by force, in order to curtail them, both in the Peloponnese (1774), as well as in Epirus (1779). The depredations had reached such a level that the Ottomans realized that there Intelwas danger of annihilation of the Christian reayas (subjugated populations), who formed the tax base of the empire, by their payment of the head tax.

It was during this period of upheaval that the terrible Turk-Albanian Tepelenli Ali Pasha arose in Epirus. He became the despot of Epirus for almost 40 years (1778-1821). Ali Pasha turned vengefully against centers of resistance to central authority in Epirus. He succeeded in wiping out the best-known armatoles and klephts of the period, after a prolonged struggle. His wars against the brave Souliots are well-known. He sought finally to establish an autonomous entity and for that purpose tried to coopt his Greek subjects, appointing them to high offices and rank. He never succeeded in gaining their complete trust. The Philihe Hetairia considered his break with the sultan and the concentration of loyalist troops in Epirus an opportunity for a Greek rebellion. Consequently it declared the revolution to achieve Greek independence in 1821.

The contribution of the Epirots to the preparations and the conduct of the Great Uprising (the Greek War of Independence, 1821-1830) is well known. Two of the three founders of the Philihe Hetaireia (Nikolaos Skouphas, Athanasios Tsakaloff) were from Epirus. The Souliots, the Cheimarriots and many other Epirots contributed significantly to the struggles in Mesolongi, Attica, the Peloponnese, and even in Crete. During the first two years of the War of Independence, the Epirots were able to tie down the bulk of the Turkish forces away from the main theater of operations, as a result of continuous and fierce battles in Souli and around Ioannina, in Arta and the region of Makrynoros.Finally, the affluent Epirots of Diaspora communities contributed generous economic support to the struggle.

sources
1-Brittanika, Epirus
2-Konstantinos Vakalopoulos, Epiros
3-The Struggle Of North Epirus, Greek DIS
4-Epirus:4000 years of Greek history and Civilization

[Grace]

Do you guys know or care to know that the Suliote Albanians, and many if not most Christians, were bandits as well? They cut ears, extorted Muslims and Christians. They fought for Ali Pasha and against Ali Pasha. This Akritas guy is quoting from a Greek school book as far as I am concerned. It was about making a living and power. Religion meant jack.


>> Despite ongoing persecution, the Epirots continued to maintain their fervent commitment to their culture and their belief in their national regeneration.

What Culture???



Enough with this endless copy/pasting of the same crap over and over again in every thread..STOP trolling and finally get into a productive discussion!!!